After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Babylon remained culturally important but politically subordinate.

Achaemenid Persian Empire (539–331 BCE)

• Ruled by kings like Cyrus, Darius, and Xerxes.

• Babylon remained a major administrative and scientific center.

Hellenistic Period (331–141 BCE)

• Alexander the Great captured Babylon and planned to make it his capital.

• After his death, the Seleucid Empire controlled the region.

• Greek and Babylonian cultures mixed.

Parthian Period (141 BCE–100 CE)

• Babylon declined slowly as cities like Seleucia and Ctesiphon rose.

Army

• Babylon did not have its own national army anymore.

• Persian imperial forces used Babylon as a military-administrative center.

• Under Alexander and the Seleucids, Greek-style armies dominated.

People & Society

• Babylon remained multi-ethnic.

• Greeks, Persians, Babylonians, and Jews lived side by side.

• Gradual decline as Seleucia and Ctesiphon gained importance.

Religion

• Babylonian religion continued but slowly mixed with Greek and Persian elements.

• Temples remained active until around the 1st century CE.

• Astral religion and astrology became extremely influential.

Economy

• Agriculture weakened due to canal neglect.

• Trade continued but wasn’t as dominant.

• Babylon became more of a cultural than economic center.

Culture

• Alexander planned to make Babylon his capital — died before he could.

• Greek philosophers studied Babylonian astronomy.

• Blending of Babylonian, Greek, and Persian traditions.